Mirrors, Mirrors on the Wall

A Brief History of Mirrors

Mirrors have been an important part of human civilization for thousands of years. Archaeological evidence shows that the earliest manufactured mirrors date back to around 6000 BCE in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). These ancient mirrors were made from pieces of polished stone, usually obsidian, a naturally occurring volcanic glass.

The earliest manufactured mirrors were reserved for the elites of society. They were labour-intensive to produce and were seen as luxury items and symbols of status. Mirrors allowed rulers to gaze upon their appearance and fine clothes, reinforcing their self-image and prestige.

By around 3000 BCE, mirror manufacturing had expanded to Egypt, China, Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. Bronze and copper replaced stone as the material of choice, allowing for more durable and higher quality reflections. Glass mirrors emerged around 200 BCE in Egypt, made by dipping molten glass into molten tin to create a reflective coating.

The Romans widely adopted glass mirror technology and innovated new techniques. By the 1st century CE, blown glass mirrors with lead oxide added to the molten glass to increase reflectivity were widely produced. Mirrors became common domestic objects across the Roman Empire, affording regular citizens the chance to gaze at their selves.

In Medieval Europe, small circular hand mirrors were popular fashion accessories amongst the elite. By the Renaissance, Venetian glassmakers had mastered the technique of making flat sheets of glass that could be coated to create mirrors. Technological improvements continued into the 17th and 18th century. The invention of plate glass allowed for larger panes while innovations in chemical coatings like silver nitrate and mercury further increased reflectivity.

Since the 19th century, mirrors have been produced on a massive scale using industrial manufacturing techniques. Modern mirrors use aluminium coatings vacuum deposited onto plate glass. High-quality domestic, commercial, industrial and scientific mirrors continue advancing with new coatings and substrates. Today, mirrors are ubiquitous – a commonplace object that has been centuries in the making.

Mirrors in Mythology and Folklore

Mirrors have long been objects surrounded in myth, folklore and superstition across many cultures. Their magical quality of reflection lent them an air of power and mystique.

The earliest mythical stories featuring mirrors came from Central Asia around 3000 BCE. The circular bronze mirrors common at the time were associated with the sun, a symbol of divine cosmological forces. Chinese mythology had tales of mirrors revealing the true nature of immortals. Some believed polished mirrors could be used to summon and communicate with spirits.

In Greek mythology, the goddess of beauty Aphrodite and the vain Queen Cassiopeia were sometimes depicted holding mirrors. The myths of Perseus and Medusa also featured the hero using his mirrored shield to safely behead the snake-haired gorgon by seeing her reflection instead of looking directly at her petrifying visage.

Norse mythology told of Frigg’s “fore-knowledge basin” allowing her to divine the future and度aguđr, the skaldic goddess of mirrors. And ancient Persian mythology had Atergatis, a fertility goddess whose priests would strike sacrificial victims while holding metal mirrors to capture their souls.

Across Europe in the middle ages and Renaissance, mirrors were seen as magical scrying tools for divinations but also as tools of vanity and deception. Folktales warned of the perils of obsession with one’s reflection. The magic mirror possessed by various fairy tale villains like the Evil Queen in Snow White was an ominous force luring the innocent to peril.

While myths often exaggerated the powers of mirrors, they reflect how their unique properties made mirrors objects of intrigue, valued for what they revealed – and what they might conceal. The mythology surrounding mirrors reveals the depth of their hold on human imagination and perception.

The Manufacturing Process

Modern mirrors go through a lengthy eight-step manufacturing process to achieve their flawless reflective surfaces:

1. Glass Production

Float glass formed by floating molten glass on a bath of molten tin to create uniform flat sheets provides the best starting material for mirrors. The glass is cast into large panes up to 6m long and then cut into sizes suitable for mirrors.

2. Silvering

A vacuum deposition process coats the back of the glass with an extremely thin and even layer of actual silver or more commonly, aluminium. This reflective metallic coating forms the classic mirror surface.

3. Copper Coating

A thin protective layer of copper is added over the silvering to prevent the silver from oxidizing and deteriorating over time. The copper layer guards the precious silver or aluminium coating.

4. Heat Treatment

The mirror panes undergo a heat treatment to prevent loose materials or trapped gases from later causing any bubbles or defects that could damage the mirror backing.

5. Quality Inspection

The silvered glass panes are meticulously inspected for any tiny flaws or variation in the coating that could lower reflectivity. Only the best panes proceed to the next steps.

6. Cutting and Shaping

Precision cutting and edging shapes the mirrors into required forms – round, oval, rectangular, square or custom. Computer-guided lasers and waterjets cut without damaging edges.

7. Assembly into Frames

Mirrors are assembled into their frames and housings using special adhesive tapes, clips or brackets. Mechanical fixing methods prevent distortion from glues.

8. Final Quality Control

The finished mirrors go through final checks for proper reflectivity, lack of optical distortion and to ensure frames and mirrors are properly aligned and secure. Only perfectly performing mirrors ship out to customers.

The multiple steps of mirror manufacturing and layers of quality control ensure that only the highest grade reflective surfaces come out of the production line.

Types of Mirrors

While basic plane mirrors are the most common, various other specialized mirror types have developed over the centuries, optimized for specific applications:

• Concave mirrors have inwardly curved reflective surfaces designed to concentrate and focus light rays. Uses include shaving mirrors, vehicle mirrors, reflecting telescopes and cosmetic mirrors for accurate close-up viewing.
• Convex mirrors have outwardly curved surfaces that provide a wider field of view. They are used in vehicles as side-view or blind spot mirrors and in security to provide a panoramic view.
• Two-way mirrors use partially silvered glass that is reflective on one side and transparent on the other. The famous police interrogation room scenario demonstrates their use, allowing viewing from the darkened side.
• Acoustic mirrors reflect and focus sound waves instead of light. They can act as acoustic lenses to collect faint sounds from the environment for study.
• Deformable mirrors have surfaces that can be flexed and controlled by computer to cancel out optical aberrations from atmosphere or space telescopes.
• Optical flats have surfaces precision ground to be totally flat with near-zero light distortion. They provide reference standards for calibrating optical instruments.
• Telescope mirrors come in giant parabolic shapes with ultra precise coatings to collect dim light from astronomical objects light years away.
• Heated mirrors have internal heating elements to remain fog-free. Bathroom mirrors, car rearview mirrors and outdoor security mirrors use heating.

Specialized mirrors tailor reflection precisely for their needed application – a testament to human ingenuity in shaping something as fundamental as light.

Mirrors in Science and Technology

Mirrors are absolutely vital components in a diverse range of precision scientific instruments and advanced technological systems:

• Lasers rely on mirrored optical cavities trapping and amplifying light into powerful coherent beams. The high reflectivity and strict surface accuracy of laser mirrors enable extreme concentrations of light.
• Telescopes whether on Earth or in space, require large, ultra-precise parabolic main mirrors to collect light from distant cosmic objects for astronomers to study the universe.
• Microscopes use curved mirrors to intensely illuminate samples and provide additional magnification by directing light into the imaging optics from wider angles.
• Spectroscopes separate light into component spectra using mirrored prisms and gratings to analyze the chemical composition of materials.
• Interferometers split and recombine light beams reflected between multiple mirrors to enable precise measurements and observations not possible otherwise.
• LIDAR systems have rotating mirrors scanning laser beams in patterns across areas to rapidly capture detailed 3D mapped images around vehicles like autonomous cars.
• Hemispherical reflectance measurement systems with enclosed integrating sphere mirrors allow precise optical testing of reflective material samples.
• Solar furnaces utilize huge mirrored collector arrays to concentrate sunlight on experimental materials to simulate high temperature and pressure environments.

Cutting edge science and technology rely deeply on mirrors and their unique light controlling capabilities. Advances in mirror engineering contribute profoundly to progress in these fields.

Art and Architecture Using Mirrors

Mirrors have been utilized in varied creative ways in art, architecture, interior design and landscape gardening:

• Infinity rooms use mirrored walls and ceilings to create endless repetitive reflections of rooms, a disorienting space popularized by artist Yayoi Kusama.
• Mirrored sculptures by artists like Anish Kapoor warp viewers’ senses of shape through creative mirror installations.
• Halls of Mirrors found in historic palaces symbolized wealth and aristocracy. The grandest one at Versailles used 357 mirrored arches reflecting 17 giant mirrored panels.
• Mirrored display cases in museums allow visitors to enjoy unobstructed views of precious exhibits and artworks protected inside.
• Mirrored ceilings create an illusion of height and space in rooms. From Baroque palace chambers to 1970s disco clubs, mirrored ceilings add showmanship.
• One-way mirrored walls enable discreet viewing between rooms, like watching dance class students from a hidden studio observation room.
• Mirrored walls in interior design provide texture, light and the impression of greater room size through their reflections.
• Maze gardens use strategically placed mirrors to give the illusion of a maze with dead ends. They allow compressed layouts perfect for small spaces.

Artists can transform mirrors into something surreal while architects incorporate them elegantly into their structures. Mirrors hold great aesthetic potential beyond mere functional use.

The Symbolism of Mirrors

As glossy surfaces revealing perfect reflections, mirrors have naturally lent themselves to rich symbolism, metaphor and philosophical contemplation:

• Traditionally, covering mirrors or turning them to face the wall symbolized death and the end of vanity in Victorian homes.
• Breaking a mirror has long been associated with seven years bad luck due to the longevity of reflections and perceived magical properties.
• Literary metaphors describe mirrors as doorways, souls, memories, shadowlands or waters one can pass through to a new realm or truer reality.
• Themirror stage in psychology describes the point where children first recognize their selves in a mirror, developing the beginnings of self-awareness.
• A shattered mirror symbolizes broken identity. Reassembled mirror shards represent rebuilding the self like in mosaics or kintsugi art.
• Mirrored twins and doppelgangers in fiction symbolize confrontation with one’s double, or alternate possibilities of the self.
• The mirror reflects back without bias, revealing true flaws and excellences. Hence, it serves as a metaphor for unflinching self-examination and moral inventory.
• “Mirror, mirror on the wall…” displays the mirror as an oracle revealing deep truths about beauty and personal worth when consulted.
• Cleaning tarnished old mirrors represents reawakening identity, hidden potential and recovering lost meaning long obscured by the dust of time.

Like rippling water, mirrors have long reflected back human imagination, fears, and fundamentals of identity. Their symbolism runs deep in the psyche.

Mirrors in Religion and Spirituality

Mirrors figure prominently in certain spiritual practices and religious themes across faiths:

Ancient Egyptian religion – Temple rituals used concave mirrors to intensely focus sunlight into divine beams reflecting the sun god’s power.

New Age religions – Crystals spheres are sometimes used as “scrying mirrors” for clairvoyance and communing with guardian spirits.

Buddhism – Meditating before mirrors is believed to multiply mantras and prayers, speeding access to higher consciousness.

Ancient Greek religion – The cult of Perseus practiced rites of passage requiring youths to search for Medusa’s face reflected in a mirror without going insane.

Christianity – The Bible includes references to obscure “glasses” and “mirrors” symbolizing how one sees religious truths dimly during life.

Sufism – Islamic mystic poets wrote of polished hearts acting as mirrors to reflect the pure inner light of Allah and creation.

Divination – Obscure religions and the occult use mirrors for scrying the past, future, distant truths or summoning apparitions during rituals.

Taoism – The ritual of “mirror-gazing meditation” while holding a lit candle before a mirror can produce altered states of consciousness.

Hinduism – Gods like Vishnu and Krishna are described as holdings jeweled mirrors symbolizing their luminous divine wisdom and power of discernment.

Across faiths, the mirror possesses layers of resonant spiritual symbolism and the means to reveal light in mystical ways during rituals.

The Psychological Effects of Mirrors

The psychologists have studied in detail how mirrors can profoundly affect human psychology:

• Viewing mirrors creates greater self-awareness and unconsciously increases conformity to social norms of conduct and appearance.
• Mirrors amplify feelings of distress when people already feel negatively about their physical appearance or perceived flaws.
• Mere presence of mirrors make public spaces seem more crowded by increasing self-focused thoughts and visual stimulation.
• Mirrors can improve confidence and performance on physical tasks by enhancing self-efficacy through positive visual feedback.
• Being observed in front of mirrors during conversations causes increased introspection which reduces how vocal and willing to share people become.
• Bodybuilders experience enhanced muscle activation and lifting performance when exercising in front of mirrors.
• Participating in “mirror therapy” helps amputee patients relieve phantom limb pain and restore mobility by tricking brains with reflected images.
• Narcissists and some other mental conditions are associated with higher mirror gazing frequency, fueling obsessive behavior.

Both psychologists and neuroscientists continue making new discoveries into how mirrors substantially affect emotions, self-perception, biases, abilities and even neural activity.

Practical Uses of Mirrors

Despite their magical mystique through history, mirrors play many straightforward roles enhancing everyday life:

• Compact cosmetic mirrors aid in applying makeup, inspecting facial features and maintaining appearance while on-the-go.
• Rearview mirrors in vehicles are absolutely essential for monitoring traffic, avoiding collisions and driving safely.
• Security mirrors around stores offer staff enhanced surveillance to deter theft and monitor inventory.
• Cloudy weather side view mirrors that manually fold in assist drivers with parking and navigating narrow garage exits.
• Steam-free bathroom mirrors by fog-free coating or heating elements keep mirrors effectively usable through hot showers.
• Dental mirrors provide critical visualization for dentists to inspect the hard to see surfaces of teeth being worked on.
• Lighted make-up mirrors often include magnification options to offer optimal lighting and visibility for detail work like plucking eyebrows.
• First responders carry specialized mirrors to look under wrecked vehicles or around corners with minimal risk.
• Dance studio mirrors provide immediate visual feedback to students on the proper positioning and execution of steps.

Though often taken for granted, purpose-built mirrors deliver practical visual assistance throughout everyday public and private life.

The Future of Mirrors

Mirror technology continues advancing into the 21st century:

• Smart mirrors with cameras, displays and apps offer information on weather, news and daily planning when gazed into.
• Virtual fitting room mirrors use augmented reality to show how clothing looks when worn without changing actual outfits.
• Self-cleaning mirrors modeled on lotus leaves use nanostructured glass coatings to repel water, dirt and even bacteria.
• Deformable bimorph mirrors bending via electric currents enable rapid focusing and aberration control for sharper imaging.
• Thin-film dielectric mirrors constructed by stacking nanolayers of alternating refractive materials attain unparalleled reflectivity.
• Remote-controlled rearview mirrors on new cars can tilt and swivel electrically allowing drivers perfect viewing angles.
• No-glare mirrors with slight diffusion or coatings reduce dazzling bright light reflections while maintaining good clarity.
• Unbreakable plastic mirrors produced through vacuum deposition on thin polymer sheets resist shattering when dropped or hit.
• Telepresence “mirrors” enable real-time video calls letting distant friends and family chat naturally like being in the same room.

Mirrors in the future will extend human vision, expression and communication in exciting new ways, building upon centuries of reflective progress.

Frequently Asked Questions about Mirrors

What makes mirrors reflective?

Mirror reflection occurs due to a phenomenon called specular reflection. When light hits an ultra smooth surface like a mirror, it bounces off at precisely the same angle it hit, allowing ordered images to be reproduced by the reflected light beams. Metallic coatings like silver, aluminium and other materials with high reflectivity maximize this specular reflection effect in mirrors.

How are two-way mirrors made?

Two-way mirrors rely on partial silvering, a coating made thin enough to permit some light to pass through while still reflecting most light. A brighter room behind the two-way mirror overpowers the lower lit room in front, allowing discreet viewing from the rear side due to reflected light overpowering the weaker transmitted light.

Do dogs recognize themselves in mirrors?

Unlike humans and some other highly intelligent animals like elephants and dolphins, dogs do not demonstrate self-recognition when gazing into mirrors. Their vision also differs substantially from humans, so dog brain psychology lacks the innate wiring to intellectually connect mirrors to self-awareness.

Why are mirrors sometimes used in psychology?

Psychology studies often employ mirrors experimentally to explore how visual self-focus affects human nature. Viewing reflections of oneself frequently amplifies introspection. Mirrors also produce shifts in emotions, biases, confidences and social behavior in interesting ways useful for psychological insight.

How do mirrors affect room lighting?

Mirrors can make rooms seem significantly brighter by capturing and reflecting back ambient light that otherwise wouldn’t directly reach occupants